Until 2016, no commentaries existed on the Water Protection Act (GSchG) and the Water Engineering Act (WBG). A commentary on these environmental legislation contributes to effective environmental protection and supports the interpretation and development of the laws.
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(peter.hettich@unisg.ch / luc.jansen@100rhoneavocats.ch / roland.norer@unilu.ch).
1. Water is of extraordinary importance to humankind and its social and economic development. Its diverse uses have always ranged from providing drinking water, irrigation, and fishing to performing mechanical work (e.g., mills) and transportation (e.g., log driving, shipping). Later, hydropower was harnessed for energy production, as well as for cooling, pumped storage, heat recovery, and hydrogen utilization. It is no wonder that even ancient laws contained provisions relating to water (see, for example, the Code of Hammurabi, especially §§ 53 to 56). Finally, from the mid-19th century onward, the first precursors to today's water regulations can be found in many European countries. At that time, many river systems were threatened by both denaturalization and industrial pollution (Marquardt, Environment and Law, 388 ff.). Topics addressed by law include river artificialization, the balancing of conflicting water use interests, fisheries law for water protection, and wastewater issues. Today, in addition to administrative law aspects, the human rights discourse on a right to water is also relevant, particularly concerning access to water and the privatization of water supplies.
2. It is striking that Switzerland did not participate in this legal development in the area of water protection (Marquardt, Environment and Law, 401 et seq.; cf. the civil law perspective in Iten, Water Law, 1 et seq.). It initially did not progress beyond a provision in the Federal Fisheries Act of 1888 (a predecessor provision was Art. 12 of the Federal Fisheries Act of 1875, AS 1877 90; Schollenberger, Confederation, 165 et seq.; Mathey-Doret, Legal Foundations, 117 et seq.). This is by no means due to a certain backwardness but can be explained by the long period of low pressure on the issue thanks to its exclusive location on the Alpine water reservoir (for the history of the federal water protection law, in particular the water protection acts of 1955 and 1991, see the commentary on Art. 1 of the Water Protection Act, N 1 et seq.).
3. The picture is quite different in the area of flood protection. Here, diverse beginnings date back to the Linth correction at the turn of the 18th to the 19th century, which was followed in particular by the first and second Jura water corrections as well as the corrections of the Rhine and Rhone rivers (Endtner, Bundesgesetz, 8). Finally, in 1877 the Federal Law on Water Management Police was enacted, followed in 1991 by the Federal Law on Water Management (for the legislative history, see the commentary on Art. 1 WBG N 1 ff.).
4. Beyond their respective primary purposes, the Water Protection Act (GSchG) and the Water Management Act (WBG) share significantly more similarities than differences. Their common overarching goal is the protection of human beings and their habitat, as is evident from the first articles of both laws. It is therefore no coincidence that their constitutional basis is the same (Art. 76 of the Federal Constitution, in particular the first three paragraphs; see also N 8 ff.). The current versions of the two laws were adopted in the same year (1991) and entered into force almost simultaneously (December 1, 1992, and January 1, 1993, respectively). Both laws address the same essential substance: water. However, the Water Management Act (WBG) focuses solely on surface water, while the Water Protection Act (GSchG) also addresses groundwater.
5. The two laws differ considerably, however, with regard to the means by which their overarching goal is achieved. The Water Protection Act (GSchG), classified under the 8th subject area of the Swiss Federal Law on Water Management (SR) "Health – Work – Social Security," aims to protect water bodies, while the Water Management Act (WBG), classified under the 7th subject area of the SR "Public Works – Energy – Transport," regulates hydraulic engineering.
6. Specifically, the GSchG aims for the qualitative and quantitative protection of both surface and groundwater, whereas the WBG aims to protect against the harmful effects of surface water.
7. Another difference lies in the distribution of legislative powers. The GSchG contains the essential substantive law and leaves the procedural law (implementation and procedure) to the cantons. The WBG, on the other hand, is characterized by a more even distribution of legislative powers with regard to both substantive and procedural law.
8. The Water Protection Act (GSchG) and the Water Protection Act (WBG) exclusively cite Article 76 of the Federal Constitution (BV) as their basis in their preambles. The Water Resources Act (WRG) and the Water Management Act (StAG), which are not discussed here, also rely essentially on this provision. Article 76 BV thus forms the central basis for all federal water law. In the sense of a "comprehensive concept," the provision encompasses water in its various functions (drinking water, habitat, irrigation, energy source, leisure and recreation, etc.) as well as in the associated and conflicting interests of use and protection (Caluori/Griffel, BSK BV, Art. 76 BV, N 6). Furthermore, Article 76 BV has numerous connections to general state objectives, e.g., Article 73 BV (sustainability), Article 89 paragraph 1 BV (energy policy objectives), and Article 94 paragraph 3 BV (favorable framework conditions for the private sector). Article 76 of the Federal Constitution must then be coordinated with other federal responsibilities, e.g., Article 74 (environmental protection) or Article 75 (spatial planning). Finally, water is an indispensable prerequisite for human life and a life of dignity, which is why the question of a constitutionally guaranteed "right to water" in the sense of a human right must be raised (see, e.g., Hofer, Christian, Water supply; Laskowski, Human rights; Rüegger, Water access, passim).
9. Article 76 paragraph 1 formulates the central regulatory objectives of water law for the attention of the federal legislature: the economical use and protection of water resources, as well as the prevention of harmful impacts. Paragraph 1 is a programmatic objective without any specific competence content, which can serve as a guideline for the design and interpretation of all water law (Marti, St. Galler Kommentar, Art. 76 N 2). Based on Article 76 paragraph 2 of the Federal Constitution, the Confederation has the competence to issue principles concerning the conservation and development of water resources, the use of water bodies for energy production and cooling purposes, and other interventions in the water cycle. The Water Resources Act (WRG) was primarily enacted on this basis. The power to enact fundamental legislation leaves the cantons considerable regulatory discretion, which, however, is superseded by the power under paragraph 3 (see the critical commentary by Caluori/Griffel, BSK BV, Art. 76 N 20 and 59, and Marti, St. Galler Kommentar, Art. 76 N 9 with further references). Article 76 paragraph 3 of the Federal Constitution grants the Confederation comprehensive power and a mandate to enact regulations on water protection, ensuring adequate residual flow, hydraulic engineering, the safety of dams, and the management of precipitation. With the enactment of the Water Protection Act (GSchG), the Confederation has practically exhausted its powers in the area of qualitative and quantitative water protection. In the field of hydraulic engineering, the WBG (Water Management Act) should be mentioned; in the field of dams, the StAG (State Act on the Protection of Waters and Dams) (For remaining regulatory scope in cantonal law, see Commentary on Art. 1 GSchG N 13 f.; for the WBG, see, for example, Commentary on Art. 1 WBG N 1 ff.).
10. According to Art. 704 of the Swiss Civil Code (ZGB), water sources are considered integral parts of real estate; they therefore belong to the respective landowner. Rights to the source itself can be established and transferred by the landowner by means of easements (within the framework of the restrictions possible under Art. 705 ZGB, which most cantons fully utilize). However, private ownership rights can generally only be established for sources of limited volume and local groundwater resources. All other surface and subsurface water resources, and thus the majority of water resources, are considered so-called public waters and are under the jurisdiction of the cantons (as declaratory in Art. 76 para. 4 of the Federal Constitution; see also Art. 1 para. 2 of the Water Resources Act (WRG)); in principle, private ownership cannot be established for these (Art. 664 para. 2 ZGB). Subject to international (and in cases of deadlock, also intercantonal) waters (para. 5), the cantons decide on the granting of rights to water use. Within the limits of the Water Resources Act (WRG), they can also levy charges for this.
11. Due to the cantons' sovereignty over water, the federal government has no authority to issue regulations concerning the organization of water supply (privatization or liberalization) (Federal Council's answer of 22 May 2013 to the interpellation by Schwaller, 13.3193: "The EU wants to liberalize the drinking water supply. Is there a need for action in Switzerland?"). It is therefore understandable that the debate (and probably unfounded concern) about possible forced privatization of water supply, triggered in connection with the creation of the European Concessions Directive (Directive 2014/23/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 February 2014 on the award of concessions, OJ L 94/1), has found little resonance in Switzerland. In Europe, this debate has led to the creation of exceptions in the water sector (Art. 12 Directive 2014/23/EU), which is why the organizational structure, particularly of drinking water supply, remains in the hands of the individual EU Member States. Water suppliers in Switzerland are generally public institutions or corporations of the responsible municipalities. Water suppliers in the form of public limited companies are usually controlled by the public sector. However, concessions for granting water rights to private third parties must be awarded in a non-discriminatory and transparent procedure, as stipulated in Articles 8 and 27 of the Federal Constitution (Art. 60 para. 3bis of the Water Resources Act). The federal government does, of course, have powers in other aspects of drinking water supply; see, for example, Articles 102 and 118 of the Federal Constitution.
12. The Federal Constitution (BV) does not explicitly provide for an individual right to water; such a right would most likely be based on protective obligations in connection with Article 10 BV (protection of physical integrity) or Article 12 BV (right to assistance in emergencies). As far as can be seen (and not surprisingly, given the comprehensive entitlement to social assistance and the large number of public drinking water fountains in common use), the legal practice has not yet directly addressed the "right to water." The cantons, which are usually responsible in this context, have considerable discretion in deciding how they intend to effectively guarantee any individual right to water that may exist.
13. In the view presented here, the recognition of a fundamental right to water cannot be without limitations. Differentiations regarding the quantities that can be claimed and the price to be paid are clearly necessary when one considers the various uses of water as drinking water, for private swimming pools, for the production of industrial goods, and for irrigating fields. A genuine human right to water can therefore only refer to the quantity necessary for maintaining human life and personal hygiene. For all other uses, the asserted claims must be examined for their legitimacy, coordinated with other usage claims, and reconciled with the affected interests in protection. In this context, it should also be remembered that the recognition of a human right to water does not automatically create a right to free water supplies; if water is provided at low prices or even free of charge, this creates incentives for waste. Even the sensitive question of whether water supply may be discontinued for non-payment of the water bill is, as far as can be seen, handled differently by municipal utilities. Publicly controlled utilities are well advised to establish legally sound procedures for such drastic measures, procedures that ensure due process and the legally compliant notification of decisions to third parties as well (cf., in connection with electricity, for example, BGE 137 I 120).
14. In view of the many questions that cannot be easily answered in general terms from a constitutional perspective, the realization of the right to water is primarily the responsibility of the democratically legitimized legislature. The legislature must enact corresponding, constitutionally compliant regulations in the market regulations and the organizational decrees of the utility companies.
15. While the idea of a comprehensive regulation of water law is "formally realized only at the constitutional level" (Jagmetti, Commentary on the Federal Constitution of 1874, Art. 24bis N 1; historical overview in Zurbrügg, Régime des eaux, 213 ff.), attention at the statutory level must be focused on a multitude of norms. According to Art. 76 para. 1 of the Federal Constitution, these can be categorized as serving the purposes of economical use, the protection of water resources, and the prevention of harmful effects of water.
16. At federal level, the Federal Act on the Protection of Waters (Water Protection Act, GSchG) of 24 January 1991 (SR 814.20) and the Water Protection Ordinance (GSchV) of 28 October 1998 (SR 814.201) serve to protect water resources. In addition, the Federal Systematic Collection of Laws lists numerous other regulations, grouped by topic: Federal Institute for Water Supply, Wastewater Treatment and Water Protection (SR 814.242), National Geology (SR 814.251), Water Protection in the Transport of Dangerous Goods by Road (SR 814.274.16), Water Protection in Inland Navigation (SR 814.274.721), Water Protection during Navigation on Lake Constance (SR 814.274.722), Water Polluting Substances (SR 814.281.3), Water Protection in the Event of Incidents (SR 814.281.41), Water Protection in Agriculture (SR 814.291.6) and Measures for the Protection of Habitats in the Case of Hydropower Plants (SR 814.292.3).
17. At the cantonal level, the relevant laws and ordinances ensure the implementation of federal law and, in particular, regulate the division of responsibilities between the canton and the municipalities, as well as between private entities. They are as follows: Introductory Act to the Federal Legislation on the Protection of the Environment and Waters AG (EG UWR AG; SAR 781.200); Ordinance to the Introductory Act to the Federal Legislation on the Protection of the Environment and Waters AG (V EG UWR AG; SAR 781.211); Implementing Ordinance to the Federal Water Protection Ordinance AG (VV GSchV AG; SAR 781.221); Act on the Introduction of the Federal Acts on Environmental Protection and on the Protection of Waters AR (UGsG AR; bGS 814.0); Ordinance to the Act on the Introduction of the Federal Acts on Environmental Protection and on the Protection of Waters AR (UGsV AR; bGS 814.01). Introductory Act to the Federal Act on the Protection of Waters AI (EG GSchG AI; GS 814.300); Ordinance to the Introductory Act to the Federal Act on the Protection of Waters AI (VEG GSchG AI; GS 814.310); Act on Water Protection BL (SGS 782); Cantonal Water Protection Ordinance BL (kGSchV BL; SGS 782.11); Cantonal Water Protection Ordinance BS (SG 783.200); Act on Groundwater Protection Zones BS (SG 783.400); Ordinance on Groundwater Protection Zones and Water Protection Areas BS (Groundwater Ordinance BS; SG 783.410); Cantonal Water Protection Act BE (KGSchG BE; BSG 821.0); Cantonal Water Protection Ordinance BE (KGV BE; BSG 821.1); Water Act FR (GewG FR; BDLF 812.1); Water Regulations FR (GewR FR; BDLF 812.11); Water Law GE (LEaux-GE; RSG L 2 05); Implementing Regulations of the Water Law GE (REaux-GE; RSG L 2 05.01); Introductory Law to the Federal Law on the Protection of Waters GL (Introductory Law to the Water Protection Act GL; GS VIII B/21/1); Ordinance to the Introductory Law to the Water Protection Act GL (Water Protection Ordinance GL; GS VIII B/21/4); Introductory Law to the Federal Law on the Protection of Waters GR (Cantonal Water Protection Act, KGSchG GR; BR 815.100); Ordinance to the Introductory Law to the Federal Law on the Protection of Waters GR (Cantonal Water Protection Ordinance, KGSchV GR; BR 815.200); Ordinance on the Protection of Waters JU (RSJU 814.21); Introductory Act to the Federal Act on the Protection of Waters LU (EGGSchG LU; SRL 702); Implementing Ordinance to the Introductory Act to the Federal Act on the Protection of Waters LU (Cantonal Water Protection Ordinance, KGSchV LU; SRL 703); Law on the Protection of Waters NE (LCPE NE; RSN 805.10); Implementing Regulation of the Law on the Protection of Waters NE (RLCPE NE; RSN 805.100); Introductory Act to the Federal Act on the Protection of Waters NW (Cantonal Water Protection Act, kGSchG NW; NG 722.1); Implementing Ordinance to the Cantonal Water Protection Act NW (Cantonal Water Protection Ordinance, kGSchV NW; NG 722.11); Implementing Ordinance to the Federal Act on the Protection of Waters OW (Cantonal Water Protection Ordinance OW; GDB 783.11); Introductory Act to the Water Protection Act SH (SHR 814.200); Implementing Ordinance to the Introductory Act to the Water Protection Act SH (Cantonal Water Protection Ordinance, GSchVV SH; SHR 814.201); Introductory Act to the Water Protection Act SZ (EGzGSchG SZ; SRSZ 712.110); Implementing Ordinance to the Introductory Act to the Water Protection Act SZ (VVzGSchG SZ; SRSZ 712.111); Sections 78 et seq. of the Act on Water, Soil and Waste SO (GWBA SO; BGS 712.15); Sections 22 et seq. of the Ordinance on Water, Soil and Waste SO (VWBA SO; BGS 712.16); Implementing Regulation to the Introductory Act to the Federal Water Protection Act SG (sGS 752.11); Implementing Act for the Federal Water Protection Legislation SG (GSchVG SG; sGS 752.2); Ordinance on the Implementing Act for the Federal Water Protection Legislation SG (GSchVV SG; sGS 752.21); Law on the Implementation of the Federal Law on Water Pollution TI (LALIA TI; RL 9.1.1.2); Introductory Act to the Federal Act on the Protection of Waters TG (EG GSchG TG; RB 814.20); Ordinance of the Cantonal Government on the Federal Act on the Protection of Waters and on the Introductory Act to the Federal Act on the Protection of Waters TG (RRV EG GSchG TG; RB 814.211); Art. 12 ff. Cantonal Environmental Act UR (KUG UR; RB 40.7011); VD Water Protection Act (LPEP VD; RSV 814.31); Implementing Regulations of the VD Water Protection Act of 17 September 1974 (RLPEP VD; RSV 814.31.1); VS Cantonal Water Protection Act (kGSchG VS; SGS 814.3); ZG Water Act (GewG ZG; BGS 731.1); Ordinance to the ZG Water Act (V GewG ZG; BGS 731.11); Introductory Act to the Zurich Water Protection Act (EG GSchG ZH; LS 711.1); Zurich Water Protection Ordinance (KGSchV ZH; LS 711.11).
18. Among intercantonal agreements, the agreement on joint water protection measures for Lake Lucerne (LU: SRL 704; UR: RB 40.4318; SZ: not found; OW: not found; NW: NG 722.2) should be mentioned; otherwise, the vast majority concern the cross-cantonal construction and operation of wastewater treatment plants, such as the agreement between the Canton of Basel-Stadt and the Canton of Basel-Landschaft concerning the joint implementation of water protection measures (BS: SG 785.700; BL: SGS 783.31).
19. At the federal level, the Federal Act on Hydraulic Engineering of 21 June 1991 (SR 721.100) and the Ordinance on Hydraulic Engineering (Hydraulic Engineering Ordinance, WBV) of 2 November 1994 (SR 721.100.1) are dedicated to preventing harmful impacts. Further regulations concerning watercourse correction and lake regulation include various federal decrees that guarantee corresponding federal contributions (SR 721.3).
20. At the cantonal level, water engineering law essentially regulates water engineering projects and their implementation. It is structured as follows: Sections 120 et seq. of the Building Act AG (BauG AG; SAR 713.100); the Act on Water Engineering and Water Use AR (Water Engineering Act, WBauG AR; bGS 741.1); Water Engineering Ordinance AR (WBauV AR; bGS 741.11); Water Engineering Act AI (WBauG AI; GS 721.000); Water Engineering Ordinance AI (WBauV AI; GS 721.010); Water Engineering Act BL (WBauG BL; SGS 445); BS no regulation; Water Engineering Act BE (WBG BE; BSG 751.11); Water Engineering Ordinance BE (BSG 751.111.1); Water Act FR (GewG FR; BDLF 812.1); Loi sur les eaux GE (LEaux-GE; RSG L 2 05); GL no regulation; Hydraulic Engineering Act GR (KWBG GR; BR 807.700); Loi sur la protection against les incendies et les dangers naturels JU (RSJU 871.1); Hydraulic Engineering Act LU (SRL 760); Hydraulic Engineering Ordinance LU (SRL 760a); Loi sur les eaux NE (LEaux NE; RSN 731.101); Décret concernant les dépenses d’entretien et de correction des cours d’eau NE (RSN 731.111); Water Rights Act NW (NG 631.1); Hydraulic Engineering Act OW (GDB 740.1); Law regulating the drainage conditions of Lake Sarnen to ensure flood safety in the Sarnera Valley OW (GDB 740.2); Water Management Act SH (SHR 721.100); Ordinance on the Water Management Act SH (SHR 721.103); Water Rights Act SZ (SRSZ 451.100); Implementing Ordinance SZ (SRSZ 451.111); Sections 15 et seq. of the Act on Water, Soil and Waste SO (GWBA SO; BGS 712.15); Water Engineering Act SG (sGS 734.1); Water Engineering Ordinance SG (sGS 734.11); TI no regulation; Act on Water Engineering TG (RB 721.1); Ordinance of the Government Council on the Act on Water Engineering TG (RB 721.11); Water Engineering Act UR (RB 40.1211); Law on Water Police Dependent on Public Domains VD (LPDP VD; RSV 721.01); Law on Water Engineering VS (SGS 721.1); Ordinance on Water Engineering VS (SGS 721.100); Law on Waters ZG (GewG; BGS 731.1); Water Management Act ZH (WWG ZH; LS 724.11).
21. Intercantonal agreements generally concern measures relating to watercourses crossing cantonal borders. Examples include the Intercantonal Agreement between the cantons of Glarus, Schwyz, St. Gallen and Zurich on the Linth Works (GL: GS VII B/55/2; SZ: SRSZ 453.120.1; SG: sGS 734.331; ZH: LS 724.12), the Intercantonal Agreement on the Regulation of the Outflow of Lake Lucerne (IVRV; LU: SRL 763; UR: RB 40.1218; SZ: SRSZ 453.210.1; OW: GDB 740.5; NW: NG 631.2), and the Acte intercantonal concernant la correction et la régularisation de l’écoulement des eaux du Léman entre les cantons de Genève, de Vaud et du Valais (GE: RSG L 2) 15; VD: RSV 721.91; VS: not found) as well as the concordat between the cantons of Uri and Schwyz on measures to secure the Riemenstaldnerbach and its catchment area (UR: RB 453.110; SZ: SRSZ 453.110.1).
22. At the federal level, the use of hydropower is governed by the Federal Act on the Utilization of Hydropower (Water Rights Act, WRG) of 22 December 1916 (SR 721.80), the Ordinance on the Utilization of Hydropower (Water Rights Ordinance, WRV) of 2 February 2000 (SR 721.801), the Ordinance on Compensation for Losses in Hydropower Use (VAEW) of 25 October 1995 (SR 721.821), the Ordinance on the Calculation of Water Rates (Water Rates Ordinance, WZV) of 12 February 1918 (SR 721.831), the Ordinance on the Share of Water Rates of 16 April 1997 (SR 721.832), and the Federal Act on Dams (Dams Act, StAG) of 1 October 2010 (SR 721.101). the Dam Ordinance (StAV) of 17 October 2012 (SR 721.101.1).
23. The Federal Act on Fisheries (BGF) of 21 June 1991 (SR 923.0), the Ordinance to the Federal Act on Fisheries (VBGF) of 24 November 1993 (SR 923.01), and the Ordinance of the Federal Department of the Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications (DETEC) on Fisheries in Lake Constance-Upper Lake of 9 October 1997 (SR 923.31) should also be mentioned. Further references concerning the protection of endangered species of wild animals (SR 923.61), the protection of fisheries during the utilization of hydropower (SR 923.62), and water protection (SR 923.63) can be found in the Systematic Collection of Federal Laws.
24. Both topics are also addressed at the cantonal level. In particular, the use of hydropower is regulated as follows: Water Use Act AG (WnG AG; SAR 764.100); Water Use Levy Decree AG (WnD AG; SAR 764.110); Water Use Ordinance AG (WnV AG; SAR 764.111); AI no regulation; Law on Hydraulic Engineering and Water Use AR (WBauG AR; bGS 741.1); Hydraulic Engineering Ordinance AR (WBauV AR; bGS 741.11); Water Use Act BE (WNG BE; BSG 752.41); Ordinance on Water Withdrawals from Surface Waters BE (VWO BE; BSG 752.467); Law on Hydraulic Engineering and Water Use BL (WBauG BL, SGS 445); Hydraulic Engineering Ordinance BL (WBauV BL, SGS 445.11); Law on the Use and Protection of Groundwater BL (Groundwater Law BL, SGS 454); Ordinance on Water Supply and the Use and Protection of Groundwater BL (SGS 455.11); Law concerning the Introduction of the Federal Law on the Utilization of Water Power BS (SG 771.300); Ordinance to the Law concerning the Introduction of the Federal Law on the Utilization of Water Power BS (SG 771.310); Law on the Use of Public River and Groundwater BS (SG 771.500); Ordinance to the Law on the Use of Public River and Groundwater BS (SG 771.510); Water Law FR (GewG FR; BDLF 812.1); Water Regulations FR (GewR FR; BDLF 812.11); Regulations on the use of superficial and underground water GE (RUESS GE; RSG L 2 05.04); Loi sur l’occupation des eaux publiques GE (LOEP GE; RSG L 2 10); Règlement sur l’occupation des eaux publiques GE (LOEP GE; RSG L 2 10.01); Resolution on the utilization of hydropower GL (GS VII B/531/1); Water Rights Act GR (BWRG; BR 810.100); Ordinance on the GR Water Rights Act (BWRV; BR 810.100); Loi sur l’utilisation des eaux JU (RSJU 752.41); Ordonnance portant execution de la loi sur l’utilisation des eaux JU (RSJU 752.411); Water Use and Water Supply Act LU (WNVG LU; SRL 770); Water Use and Water Supply Ordinance LU (WNVG LU; SRL 771); Loi sur la protection et la gestion des eaux NE (LPGE NE; RSN 805.10); Implementing Regulation of the Water Protection and Management Act NE (RLPGE NE; RSN 805.100); Water Rights Act NW (WRG NW; NG 631.1); Water Rights Ordinance NW (WRV; NG 631.11); Act on Hydraulic Engineering and Water Use OW (Water Engineering Act OW; GDB 740.1); Hydraulic Engineering Ordinance OW (GDB 740.11); Act on Water Use SG (GNG SG; sGS 751.1); Implementing Ordinance to the Act on Water Use SG (sGS 751.11); Ordinance on the Procurement of Materials from Public Waters SG (sGS 751.13); Water Management Act SH (SHR 721.100); Ordinance to the Water Management Act SH (SHR 721.103); Law on Water, Soil and Waste SO (GWBA SO; BGS 712.15); Ordinance on Water, Soil and Waste SO (VWBA SO; BGS 712.16); Regulations for the Estimation of Water Power SO (BGS 712.564.1); Water Rights Act SZ (WRG SZ; SRSZ 451.100); Implementing Ordinance to the Water Rights Act SZ (WRV SZ; SRSZ 451.111); Ordinance on Public Beach Soil and Material Extraction from Public Waters SZ (SRSZ 454.110); Water Use Act TG (RB 721.8); Ordinance of the Government Council on the Water Use Act TG (RB 721.81); Water Use Act TI (RL 9.1.6.1); Regulation on the use of water TI (RL 9.1.6.1.1); Water use law UR (GNG UR; RB 40.4101); Water use regulation UR (GNV UR; RB 40.4105); Regulation on the exploitation of public waters UR (RB 40.4111); Law on the police of waters dependent on the public domain VD (LPDP VD; RSV 721.01); Regulation on the control of waters dependent on the public domain VD (RLPDP VD; RSV 721.01.1); Law regulating the occupation and exploitation of underground waters dependent on the public domain cantonal VD (LESDP VD; RSV 721.03); Decree on pumping authorizations for irrigation VD (AAPA VD; RSV 721.05.1); Law on the utilization of water power VS (SGS 721.8); Decree concerning the approval of certain municipal orders and agreements on the utilization of water power of public waters VS (SGS 721.80); Law on waters ZG (GewG ZG; BGS 731.1); Ordinance to the Law on Waters ZG (V GewG ZG; BGS 731.11); Water Management Act ZH (WWG ZH; LS 724.11). In addition, there are numerous other regulations, particularly concerning concessions.
25. The regulations concerning fisheries are as follows: Introductory Act to the Federal Act on Fisheries AG (Fishery Act AG, AFG; SAR 935.200); Ordinance to the Fisheries Act AG (Fishery Ordinance AG, AFV; SAR 935.211); Fisheries Act AI (FishG AI; GS 923.000); Fisheries Ordinance AI (FishV AI; GS 923.010); Ordinance on Fisheries AR (Fishery Ordinance AR; bGS 527.2); Fisheries Act BE (FiG BE; BSG 923.11); Ordinance on Fisheries BE (FIV BE; BSG 923.111); Fisheries Act BL (SGS 530); Ordinance to the Fisheries Act BL (SGS 530.11); Act on Fisheries BS (Fishery Act BS; SG 921.500); Ordinance on Fisheries BS (BS Fisheries Ordinance; SG 912.510); Law on Fisheries FR (BDLF 923.1); Law on Fisheries GE (LPêche GE; RSG M 4 06); Regulations for the Application of the Law on Fisheries GE (RPêche GE, M 4 06.01); Introductory Act to the Federal Law on Fisheries GL (Cantonal Fisheries Law GL; GS VI E/31/1); Ordinance on Fisheries GL (GS VI E/31/2); Ordinance on the Implementation of Fisheries Legislation GL (GS VI E/31/3); Cantonal Fisheries Law GR (KFG; BR 760.100); Cantonal Fisheries Ordinance GR (KFV; BR 760.150); Law on Fisheries JU (RSJU 923.11); Ordonnance portant execution de la loi du 26 October 1978 sur la pêche JU (RSJU 923.111); Ordonnance concernant le développement et la protection de la pêche, ainsi que l’aménagement des eaux poissonneuses JU (RSJU 923.121); Ordonnance concernant l’affermage des eaux poissonneuses JU (RSJU 923.131); Fisheries Act LU (FiG LU; SRL 720); Fisheries Ordinance LU (FiV LU; SRL 721); Law on Aquatic Fauna NE (LFAq NE; RSN 923.10); Implementing Regulations of the Law on Aquatic Fauna NE (RSN 923.101); Introductory Law to the Federal Legislation Concerning Fisheries NW (NG 842.1); Implementing Ordinance to the Introductory Law to the Federal Legislation Concerning Fisheries NW (Cantonal Fisheries Ordinance NW, kFV NW; NG 842.11); Fisheries Law OW (GDB 651.2); Fisheries Ordinance OW (GDB 651.21); Law on Fisheries and the Protection of Aquatic Animals and their Habitats SG (Fisheries Law SG; sGS 854.1); Fisheries Ordinance SG (FV SG; sGS 854.11); Ordinance on Fisheries SH (SHR 923.101); Fisheries Act SO (BGS 625.11); Fisheries Ordinance SO (BGS 625.12); Fisheries Act SZ (SRSZ 771.100); Cantonal Fisheries Act SZ (KFG SZ; SRSZ 771.110); Fisheries Act TG (RB 923.1); Ordinance of the Government Council on Fisheries TG (RB 923.11); Cantonal Law on Fishing and the Protection of Indigenous Fish and Shrimp TI (RL 8.5.2.1); Application Regulation of the Cantonal Law on Fishing and the Protection of Indigenous Fish and Shrimp TI (RL 8.5.2.1.1); Ordinance on Fisheries UR (RB 40.3211); VD Fishing Law (RSV 923.01); VD Fishing Law (RSV 923.01.1); VS Cantonal Fishing Law (SGS 923.1); VS Fishing Ordinance (SGS 923.100); ZG Fishing Law (BGS 933.21); ZG Fishing Ordinance (BGS 933.211); ZH Fishing Law (LS 923.1); ZH Fishing Ordinance (LS 923.11).
26. Regarding the intercantonal agreements on water use, reference should be made to the State Treaty on the use of the Engelbergeraa (NW: NG 632.1) / State Treaty on the use of waters in the Engelbergertal (OW: GDB 752.4).
27. In addition, there is an unmanageable number of agreements on fishing in border waters, such as the Concordat on Fishing in Lake Neuchâtel (FR: BDLF 923.5; NE: RSN 923.520; VD: RSV 923.99), the Concordat on Fishing in Lake Geneva (CPL) (GE: RSG M 4 03; VD: RSV 923.95; VS: SGS 923.900), the agreement between the cantons of Zurich, Schwyz, Glarus and St. Gallen on fishing in Lake Zurich, the Linth Canal and Lake Walen (GL: GS VI E/331/1; SG: sGS 854.373; SZ: SRSZ 772.421.1; ZH: LS 923.72) or the Intercantonal Agreement on fishing in Lake Lucerne (LU: SRL 724; NW: NG 842.2; OW: GDB 651.3; SZ: SRSZ 772.111.1; UR: RB 40.3231).
28. Union and international law also address water law issues, which have varying degrees of influence on the relevant Swiss law.
29. The supranational body of law can be limited here to the two areas of protection and prevention. The basis for water law regulations at the Union level is Article 192 TFEU concerning the environment, which provides for qualified majority voting for regulations concerning water quality and unanimity for regulations concerning water quantity (paragraphs 1 and 2(b), second indent).
30. The central protective standard is indisputably Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy (the so-called Water Framework Directive, WFD; OJ L 288/27). The objective of this directive, which entered into force at the end of 2000, is to establish a general regulatory framework for water protection, which has since developed into a comprehensive and complex European water policy (see Rumm/Von Keitz/Schmalholz, Handbook, 9 ff.).
31. A comparison with Swiss water and water protection legislation reveals significant instrumental and conceptual differences. The Water Framework Directive (WFD) possesses several important instruments, such as a general obligation to improve water quality, a systematic (river basin-based) approach, and mandatory assessments of the water conditions of all water bodies, which are lacking in Swiss law. Swiss law, on the other hand, primarily works by setting water protection objectives, but only in individual cases establishes binding commitments regarding how and when these objectives are to be achieved (Rey/Müller, EC WFD, pp. 26 ff.).
32. The following additional legal sources are of particular importance for the purification and protection of water bodies: Council Directive 91/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 on urban wastewater treatment (the so-called Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive, OJ L 135/40); Council Directive 91/676/EEC of 12 December 1991 on the protection of waters against pollution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources (the so-called Nitrates Directive, OJ L 375/1); Directive 2006/118/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2006 on the protection of groundwater against pollution and deterioration (the so-called Groundwater Directive, OJ L 372/19); Directive 2008/105/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on environmental quality standards in the field of water policy (the so-called Priority Substances Directive, OJ L 348/84).
33. The central legal standard is Directive 2007/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2007 on the assessment and management of flood risks (the so-called Floods Directive, OJ L 288/27). It entered into force in 2007 and aims to establish a framework for the assessment and management of flood risks in order to reduce the adverse effects of flooding on human health, the environment, cultural heritage, and economic activities in the Union (for its origin, legal basis, content, and implementation, see Norer, Flood Protection Law EU – Switzerland, pp. 164 ff. with further references). The directive is addressed to the Member State (Art. 19 Floods Directive), which is responsible for the highly complex, multi-stage implementation process (see Breuer, Law and Politics, p. 106 for a critical perspective). The flood risk management plans were to be drawn up and published by December 2015 (for the implementation schedule see Norer, Flood Protection Law EU – Switzerland, 183 ff., for an example of implementation in Germany and Austria 186 ff.; generally see Reinhardt, Flood Protection, 469 ff.).
34. In contrast to current Swiss flood protection law (see Commentary on Art. 1 WBG N 19), the Floods Directive (FD) is explicitly committed to modern risk management. This is reflected above all in the three-stage planning instrumentation: preliminary assessment – hazard and risk maps – risk management plans. It thus follows the risk approach, which, in the sense of more comprehensive flood prevention, aims to counteract the development of damage potential in society and/or facilitate the management of damage events. In contrast, the traditional safety approach, to which Swiss law is still largely committed, focuses on technical flood protection, which aims to modify the natural event (Wagner, Risk Approach, 774 ff.; Norer, Flood Protection Law EU – Switzerland, 228). However, this classic flood protection has proven neither achievable nor sustainable due to inherent uncertainties, high costs, and significant social and environmental impacts. Rather, the risk management of the Floods Directive (HWRL) follows the understanding that flood damage can only be estimated and reduced to a certain extent, and that this extent requires societal agreement and definition (see generally Planat, Hazard Prevention; Planat, Synthesis Report Natural Hazards; Zaugg, Philosophical Change, 30 ff.; Schanze, Perspectives, 167 ff.; on the anchoring of the integrated risk management approach in Swiss flood protection law, see Norer, Flood Protection Law EU – Switzerland, 234 ff.; generally Bafu, Risk Management, 75 ff.; Govoni, Risk Management, 104 ff.).
35. EU water law has no direct impact on Swiss law. The environmental agreement concluded within the framework of the Bilateral Agreements II (Agreement of 26 October 2004 between the Swiss Confederation and the European Community on Switzerland's participation in the European Environment Agency and the European Environmental Information and Monitoring Network [EIONET], SR 0.814.092.681) does not contain any obligation to adopt further elements of the environmental law acquis communautaire, including water law, beyond the aforementioned participation (see Trüten/Hanslik, Umwelt, N 1 and 37 ff. for a more nuanced view).
36. Regarding international law, bilateral and multilateral agreements between the Swiss Confederation and its neighboring states should be mentioned (see generally Favre, Environnement, 697 et seq.). For example, coordination mechanisms in water management have existed for a relatively long time in the form of international water treaties (water commissions; e.g., the International Commission for the Protection of the Waters of Lake Geneva [CIPEL]), also for catchment areas of water bodies (e.g., the Convention of 27 October 1960 on the Protection of Lake Constance against Pollution, SR 0.814.283).
37. To protect waters, agreements have been concluded concerning Lake Geneva, Lake Constance, the Rhine, and the Swiss-Italian waters (SR 0.814.2). Water withdrawals from Lake Constance are also specifically regulated (SR 0.721.4). Furthermore, numerous agreements exist, particularly in the area of fisheries, for example, concerning Lake Geneva, Lake Constance, and the Rhine (SR 0.923).
38. With regard to defense, relevant international treaties exist concerning watercourse corrections, including those for the regulation and correction of the Rhine, the Hermance, and the Breggia (SR 0.721.1). Lake regulations pertain to Lake Constance and Lake Lugano (SR 0.721.3).
39. In the area of utilization, agreements exist concerning the generation of hydropower, for example regarding the Inn, Rhone, Doubs and Rhine (SR 0.721.8). At the cantonal level, among the numerous existing agreements, the state treaty on water use from the Wiese River concluded between Margrave Karl Friedrich of Baden and the Mayor and Council of the City of Basel on August 16/25, 1756 (BS SG 771.700) should be noted. Regarding fisheries, the following should be mentioned: Arrète portant exécution de l’accord conclu entre les services de la pêche de Suisse et de France concernant la pêche dans les eaux limitrophes du Doubs JU (RSJU 923.961) and Accord entre le Conseil fédéral suisse et le Gouvernement de la République française concernant la pêche dans le lac Léman VD (RSV 923.93).
40. Furthermore, there are relevant multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) that have been ratified by Switzerland. One such agreement is the Convention of 17 March 1992 on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Waters and International Lakes (the so-called Helsinki Convention, SR 0.814.20), which is based on a river basin approach. Most other treaties concern the protection of the sea (SR 0.814.2).
41. Thus, despite the unified concept outlined in Article 76 of the Federal Constitution, Swiss water law appears relatively fragmented. The relevant provisions each focus thematically on one of the three areas of the constitutional mandate: protection, prevention, or utilization. Swiss law therefore lacks a central codification such as the German Federal Water Act (WHG of July 31, 2009, Federal Law Gazette 2585; see Czychowski/Reinhardt, Commentary on the WHG) or the Austrian Water Rights Act 1959 (WRG 1959, Federal Law Gazette 1959/215; see Bumberger/Hinterwirth, Commentary on the WRG).
42. This commentary focuses on the central provisions, namely the Federal Act on the Protection of Water Resources (GSchG) and the Federal Act on Water Resources (WBG), which fall within the purview of the Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN).
L’eau représente une importance considérable pour les êtres humains, car il faut à la fois s’en protéger et la protéger. A ce titre, elle a fait l’objet de légifération depuis toujours. En Suisse, c’est le premier de ces deux objectifs qui a fait d’abord l’objet de la LACE il y a plusieurs siècles et le second beaucoup plus récemment par la LEaux. Ces deux lois présentent beaucoup de points communs, en particulier leur base constitutionnelle fédérale (art. 76), disposition qui n’a toutefois pas encore traité d’aspects fondamentaux tels que le droit à l’eau ou son appropriation. En raison du système fédéral suisse de la répartition des compétences législatives, tant la Confédération que les cantons et mêmes les communes sont habilités à édicter des normes de droit matériel et formel permettant de mettre en œuvre cette norme fondamentale et en particulier ces deux législations. Le droit suisse de l’eau se présente ainsi de manière relativement dispersée. Le droit européen porte également sur la protection de l’eau et la protection contre l’eau mais ces textes présentent des divergences avec le droit suisse sans toutefois influencer celui-ci. Quant au droit international, il se limite à des traités et conventions multilatérales.
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